Air pollution in the Middle East has become an urgent and pervasive issue, with major cities regularly reporting hazardous levels that far exceed global health standards.
On 13 January 2025, Baghdad recorded a staggering 156 on the Air Quality Index (AQI), which is considered “unhealthy,” while Kuwait City followed closely with a score of 129. Such figures reveal a deepening environmental crisis across the region.
Such figures are many times beyond the limit recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). It goes without saying that such a state of affairs can be clearly identified as a public health hazard. On top of industrial and vehicular emissions, some countries in the Middle East also contend with the environmental impact of rapid urbanisation and construction.
As the world accelerates its transition to clean energy, the Middle East must also confront the realities of its air quality predicament.
The basics of air quality
While the term “air quality” is self-explanatory, a deeper understanding of the threat is essential. Air pollutants fall into two broad categories: PM 2.5 and PM 10, with ‘PM’ standing for “particulate matter.” These mixtures of gas and microscopic particles are categorised by size.
PM 2.5 refers to particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometres in diameter, while PM 10 includes particles under 10 micrometres. For context, human hair is typically 50 to 70 micrometres in diameter.
These are not mere dust particles, which generally fall within the PM 10 range. The real killers lie within the PM 2.5 category. These include harmful chemical compounds such as nitrogen dioxide, which contributes to ground-level ozone and acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide, emitted by industrial fumes and vehicles, irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. Carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion is highly toxic, binding to haemoglobin and cutting off oxygen supply to tissues, with symptoms ranging from dizziness to fatality.
The widespread impact of PM 2.5 is exemplified in Iraq. Shafaq News reported that Bassem Al-Gharabi, a member of the Parliamentary Health and Environment Committee, attributed rising cancer rates and respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases to high pollutant levels in water and air. Baghdad often ranks as one of the most polluted cities in the Middle East.
Baghdad has frequently topped Middle Eastern cities for air pollution rankings. Dr. Abbas Al-Husseini, a pediatric consultant, has the following testimonial:
“I choke every night. I have developed bronchial allergies, and my voice has started to become hoarse due to inhaling the foul odours that have engulfed the capital in recent days. The smell is similar to that of rotten eggs, a result of carbon emissions from incomplete combustion, especially in the areas east of the canal, near unregulated dumping sites.”
Geographic, transport and other challenges
As leading hydrocarbon suppliers and hubs of rapid construction growth over the last three decades, the Middle East faces significant challenges. The aforementioned Kuwait City highlights the issue, but other urban centres like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Mecca, and Amman also struggle with poor air quality.
Urban areas in the Middle East fall into two extremes. Egypt, Jordan, and Iraq have densely populated neighbourhoods with little open space. Here, particulate matter concentrations are high, contributing to respiratory illnesses. Unsurprisingly, Egypt and Iraq consistently rank poorly in air quality indices.
Conversely, Arabian Peninsula states have urban centres spread across vast desert plains. For example, Dammam and Riyadh are 600 kilometres apart. Mobility in the UAE and Oman primarily relies on motor vehicles, driving household car ownership rates higher.
Massive construction projects also contribute heavily to air pollution. Urban expansion projects generate significant amounts of particulate matter, including PM 10 and PM 2.5, due to activities such as excavation, demolition, and material transport. Construction vehicles, running on diesel, emit harmful gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. For instance, cities like Dubai and Doha, with their continuous development of skyscrapers, shopping malls, and residential complexes, have been known to report AQI levels above 200.
In the UAE, demand for cars has surged since 2021, aided by digital services. “This new service allows consumers to interact with our brand virtually, enabling them to customize their new car, book in-home test drives and home pick-up and drop-off for owner servicing,” said Nasif Siddiqi, Managing Director of Infiniti’s international markets, to Arab News that year.
Solutions?
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have invested in electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce vehicular emissions, particularly carbon monoxide. As the region’s fastest growing clean energy market, the UAE also leads the region in EV adoption, driven by efforts to mitigate transport-related emissions, but reliable EV solutions for freight vehicles and buses remain elusive.
This is especially problematic in countries like Egypt, where public transport plays a vital role. Poor public transport infrastructure pushes middle- and upper-class populations towards petrol and diesel vehicles.
Diesel, promoted in the 1990s for its low carbon dioxide emissions, releases high levels of PM 2.5 pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Many Middle Eastern states have been slow to transition away from high-sulphur fuels. Oil exporters continue to profit from diesel sales, and countries like Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and Iran consistently report high sulphur levels in the air.
Integrating air quality concerns into economic growth plans, especially in the energy sector, could drive systemic change. “There’s air pollution policy and economic policy. They’re generally treated separately, but they’re not,” said Noelle Selin, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in a 2023 report by Arabian Gulf Business Insight. Saudi and Emirati initiatives will reveal how far this integration can go.
Air quality is a critical and growing issue. The environmental and health consequences of emissions are permanent. In 2019, approximately 400,000 deaths were attributed to poor air quality, with Egypt alone accounting for half. Globally, air pollution is the fourth-largest cause of premature deaths.
Greater cooperation within regional bodies such as the Arab League and GCC is essential. Broader engagement with the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) could facilitate collaboration with countries like Pakistan, Indonesia, and Bangladesh, which face similar urban pollution challenges.
Awareness, comprehensive strategies, and green governance initiatives can noticeably improve air quality and public health across the Middle East.
By: Omar Ahmed.